With the passage of, they devised newer tools and techniques to hunt big games, example being the adoption of microliths that immensely contributed in the hunting of animals for consumption. It is worth noting that the settled way of life also ended ” the perpetual search for food” since now the food could be grown in abundance, the man; the predator was now the man-ufacturer, the hunter gatherer was now the rearer and farmer. The busy man was now relieved which earmarked the process of sophistication, the brains could be now used for newer ideas, new thinkings now led to remarkable changes not only in the lifestyle of the “new man” but also it influenced the food habit of man.
In the Vedas food is described as a sacred substance. It is termed as “cosmic”. In the Upanishads, it is rightly called as “Anna”. Indubitably, food was divine in those times. Following the trails of time, I shall try to evaluate what led to the changes in the habits of food of Brahmins? How did it occur? Was it something spontaneous?, or did it take centuries? Did society influence food habits? I may miss some crucial piece of data though I’ll guide through the annals of history, learning each and every factor with reasons which might have brought vegetarianism and quite literally distorted the dietary pattern of Brahmins.
Brahmins: Vegetarians?
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Today, when we talk about Brahmins, the image that looms in our mind is of priests chanting Mantras, those who generally abstain themselves from consuming animal meat or flesh, though they consume milk and dairy products. This perception of Brahmins seems fair, considering the fact that Brahmins indeed were associated with these activities since Vedic age. But is it really true? Were Brahmins vegetarians, are they vegetarians?…Lets find out.
Tracing back to the earliest times, it is rightly mentioned in the Vedas that the masses consumed meat. There are instances which show that the consumption of meat was prevalent among Brahmins in the Vedic and later Vedic period. Instances of consumption of meat is palpable in several other texts such as Upanishads, Brahmins, Grihya Sutras, Dharmasutras, Manusmriti, Mahabharat, Vyasa Smriti etc. This eliminates the doubt that the Brahmins were vegetarians since the time immemorial, in fact they never were. With the changing times, the dietary pattern fused with the advent of new norms and rituals underwent major changes, which ultimately toppled this and established newer norms and practises, affecting the current structure of diet of Brahmins. However, it was not or it is not only the societal changes or new norms that led to the changes in the diet but terrain and availability of resources too contributed in this shift. For example in some parts of the country, even today Brahmins consume meat and fish, West Bengal being one of the finest examples.
Some references:
Maharishi Yagnavalkya says in Shatapath Brahmin (3/1/2/21) that, “I eat beef because it is very soft and delicious.”
Apastamb Grihsutram (1/3/10) says, “The cow should be slaughtered on the arrival of a guest, on the occasion of ‘Shraddha’ of ancestors and on the occasion of a marriage.”
Rigveda (10/85/13) declares, “On the occasion of a girl’s marriage oxen and cows are slaughtered.”
Rigveda (6/17/1) states that “Indra used to eat the meat of cow, calf, horse and buffalo.”
Vashistha Dharmasutra (11/34) writes, “If a Brahmin refuses to eat the meat offered to him on the occasion of ‘Shraddha’ or worship, he goes to hell.”
“At a Shrradha ceremony use of meat was very meritorious according to the Vishnu Purana (3rd and 4th AD) and the meats listed are those of the hare, goat, antelope, deer, ghayal and sheep both priest and performer partook of the meat”.
Hence it should not be wrong to state that the Brahmins, like their contemporary [Europeans] were the consumers of animal food.
Towards Vegetarianism
Vedic age was agricultural, pastoral and philosophical which flourished in an urban setting. Unlike Harappan Civilization we find first literary evidence during the Vedic age, matters regarding almost every sphere of life. Food was also mentioned in these texts. We witness the emergence of vegetarianism during the later Vedic period. The later Vedic period witnessed the composition of Mahabharat, Ramayana and Puranas. It was during this time that the Hindu Gods and Goddesses were hugely devoted which ultimately laid the foundation of Hinduism.
Talking about the adoption or shift towards Vegetarianism, this shift might have occurred during the time when Buddhism and Jainism reached its pinnacle influencing masses, which led to the decreasing influence of Brahmins. Buddhism and Jainism both were against the sacrifices and challenged Brahminism. According to Rekha Pande in her “Indian Food and Cuisine- a historical survey’ many people became vegetarians with the arrival of Mauryans in 300 BCE. This was largely due to the efforts of Asoka who followed Buddhism and in his Edicts he preached non killing of animals. Earliest evidence being the Girnar Stones in Gujarat which states “No living beings may be slaughtered for sacrifice, no festive gathering may be held”. However, it will be wrong to assume that this phenomenon occurred spontaneously. There are several factors apart from the Supremacy Factor of Brahminism, Buddhism and Jainism.
Edwin Bryant in his seminal essay “The emergence of Vegetarianism in Post Vedic India” argues that the early signs of rejection of slaughter occurred occasionally even in the early Vedic period. For example; In Samaveda, a hymn says ” we use no sacrificial stake, we slay no victims, we worship entirely by the repetition of sacred verses’ ‘. This rejection or unease, became more visible in the later Vedic period, texts often opposing the practice of sacrifice and prohibition of consumption of meat. The Shatapatha Brahmana has one of the earliest statements prohibiting consumption of meat. It is worth noting that many texts legitimized violence against animals( animal sacrifice). However, this shift became more apparent by the end of the Vedic period, where Smritis espoused abstinence and renounced the consumption of meat. In Manu Smriti, it is stated that a Brahmana could eat meat only after chanting mantras. It also enjoins that “One should not eat meat without a sacred purpose”.
Seemingly, there are strong reasons to believe that the shift towards vegetarianism occurred during the Vedic age, progressively became popular during the Mauryan age, this further affected the food patterns of Brahmanas during 400 BC to 400 AD. The texts such as Manusmriti and Mahabharata which were composed during this period strongly renounced the consumption of meat by the Brahmanas. Owing to this, the sacrificial rites were still dominant as it stated that “Yudhisthira feeds ten thousand Brahmanas with the meat of wild boars and deer”. On the other hand, there are three entire chapters in the Mahabharata against the eating of meat. Example; Bhisma says “eating meat enslaves the mind”. In Puranic, we see similar conflicting statements which at one point rejected meat eating but on the other encouraged it. It is Bhagavata Purana which completely distanced itself from the sacrifice of the animal and probably contributed to the adoption of Vegetarianism. In other words the rise of Vaishnavism did play a major role as well and so did other Bhakti sects.
Why did Brahminical Vegetarianism originate?
Supremacy Factor:
During the post Vedic age as discussed the Brahmins started losing their influence in the social milieu. According to Brian K Smith in his essay ” Eaters, Food and Social Hierarchy in Ancient India” published in the Journal of American Academy of Religion, Vol 58,pp.178, the composers of Veda ie; Brahmins managed to present a rationale “for their own social superiority”. They rationalize their superiority by their sacrificial skills, it was only they who were endowed with the function of the execution of sacrifices back then. They stood apart from all others on the basis of sacrificial privileges. In this way, Brahmins found their importance in the society. Their Supremacy was challenged by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism which renounced sacrifices. This event might have had a drastic effect on the diet of the Brahmins, and could have led to the changes in the dietary pattern leading them to adopt vegetarianism in order to retain their influence on hoi polloi. Thus, the authors of the Veda tried to place themselves on the top of the social Hierarchy, by changing their dietary habits. Again, this is a mere surmise. But there is a strong possibility that the Supremacy factor did nudge them in adoption of Vegetarianism to suit their interest in order to remain influential.
‘Ahimsa‘ And ‘Purity‘ Factor :
According to Francis Zimmerman,’ non violence'(ahimsa) is fundamentally linked with vegetarianism. Francis Zimmerman in his “The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats”(1987) quotes that;
“The Prohibition Of flesh, which became increasingly strict in Brahminic society, was one way to break the chain of this alimentary violence and affirm that it is not really necessary to killing in order to eat”.
Hence, Vegetarianism didn’t mean only a new dietary custom rather it was more associated with the values. Manu says “No meat could be obtained without violence( himsa). In order to refrain oneself from eating flesh it was essential to follow the path of non violence. Vegetarianism became the path to liberate oneself from the bonds of natural violence. Apparently, this was only possible after the realization of the ideal of ” ahimsa”. We also see the emergence of Sattvic, Tamasic and Rajasic food which was enshrined in the Ayurveda. Essentially, vegetarianism and non violence became the symbol of ‘purity’. Louis Dumont says that Brahmins gave up sacrificial skills and devised a new term ‘purity’ to seek domination in the social hierarchy. Pure and impure became the determinants of society, on which karmic structure was fixed. The entire caste system was wrapped in the fabric pure and impure which also depended on food and social contact. For example: Even among the Brahmins those who killed the sacrificial animal were regarded lower status than the presiding priest. Hence, the concept of purity and ahimsa also pointed largely toward the caste distinction that prevailed during those times. This whole idea of adoption of vegetarianism is supposedly based on such factors. Thus, we do have ample logical reasons to believe that the Brahmins did adopt vegetarianism. In this process of adoption, the role played by the Sramanas seems influential since they were the first renouncers. Later on, this got subsumed in Hinduism and Brahminism became coterminous with vegetarianism. This is again not true. In most parts, Brahmins still eat non vegetarian foods. In addition to these, climate and cultivation of crops did play an important role in shifting the focus from dependence on animals for food and encouraging sedentary life, giving rise to new ideas, and questioning authority, abolishing rigid norms and adopting different lifestyle and food preferences.
Sources:
~Indian Food (KT Acharya)
~Strategies of Vedic Subversion (Edwin Bryant)
~Food in the Vedic Tradition ( DS Guha)
~Eaters, Food and Social Hierarchy in Ancient India (Brian K Smith)
Suggested Readings:
~Indian Food and Cuisine- a historical survey ( Rekha Pande)
~The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats ( F. Zimmerman)
~Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications ( Louis Dumont)
~History of Dharmashastra (PV Kane)
~Rigveda Samhita translation by Ralph T.H Griffith and Jamieson
~Animals and Humans in Early Buddhism ( James McDermott)
Maharishi Yagnavalkya says in Shatapath Brahmin (3/1/2/21) that, “I eat beef because it is very soft and delicious.”
Apastamb Grihsutram (1/3/10) says, “The cow should be slaughtered on the arrival of a guest, on the occasion of ‘Shraddha’ of ancestors and on the occasion of a marriage.”
Rigveda (10/85/13) declares, “On the occasion of a girl’s marriage oxen and cows are slaughtered.”
Rigveda (6/17/1) states that “Indra used to eat the meat of cow, calf, horse and buffalo.”
Vashistha Dharmasutra (11/34) writes, “If a Brahmin refuses to eat the meat offered to him on the occasion of ‘Shraddha’ or worship, he goes to hell.”
“At a Shrradha ceremony use of meat was very meritorious according to the Vishnu Purana (3rd and 4th AD) and the meats listed are those of the hare, goat, antelope, deer, ghayal and sheep both priest and performer partook of the meat”.
Hence it should not be wrong to state that the Brahmins, like their contemporary [Europeans] were the consumers of animal food.
Towards Vegetarianism
Vedic age was agricultural, pastoral and philosophical which flourished in an urban setting. Unlike Harappan Civilization we find first literary evidence during the Vedic age, matters regarding almost every sphere of life. Food was also mentioned in these texts. We witness the emergence of vegetarianism during the later Vedic period. The later Vedic period witnessed the composition of Mahabharat, Ramayana and Puranas. It was during this time that the Hindu Gods and Goddesses were hugely devoted which ultimately laid the foundation of Hinduism.
Talking about the adoption or shift towards Vegetarianism, this shift might have occurred during the time when Buddhism and Jainism reached its pinnacle influencing masses, which led to the decreasing influence of Brahmins. Buddhism and Jainism both were against the sacrifices and challenged Brahminism. According to Rekha Pande in her “Indian Food and Cuisine- a historical survey’ many people became vegetarians with the arrival of Mauryans in 300 BCE. This was largely due to the efforts of Asoka who followed Buddhism and in his Edicts he preached non killing of animals. Earliest evidence being the Girnar Stones in Gujarat which states “No living beings may be slaughtered for sacrifice, no festive gathering may be held”. However, it will be wrong to assume that this phenomenon occurred spontaneously. There are several factors apart from the Supremacy Factor of Brahminism, Buddhism and Jainism.
Edwin Bryant in his seminal essay “The emergence of Vegetarianism in Post Vedic India” argues that the early signs of rejection of slaughter occurred occasionally even in the early Vedic period. For example; In Samaveda, a hymn says ” we use no sacrificial stake, we slay no victims, we worship entirely by the repetition of sacred verses’ ‘. This rejection or unease, became more visible in the later Vedic period, texts often opposing the practice of sacrifice and prohibition of consumption of meat. The Shatapatha Brahmana has one of the earliest statements prohibiting consumption of meat. It is worth noting that many texts legitimized violence against animals( animal sacrifice). However, this shift became more apparent by the end of the Vedic period, where Smritis espoused abstinence and renounced the consumption of meat. In Manu Smriti, it is stated that a Brahmana could eat meat only after chanting mantras. It also enjoins that “One should not eat meat without a sacred purpose”.
Seemingly, there are strong reasons to believe that the shift towards vegetarianism occurred during the Vedic age, progressively became popular during the Mauryan age, this further affected the food patterns of Brahmanas during 400 BC to 400 AD. The texts such as Manusmriti and Mahabharata which were composed during this period strongly renounced the consumption of meat by the Brahmanas. Owing to this, the sacrificial rites were still dominant as it stated that “Yudhisthira feeds ten thousand Brahmanas with the meat of wild boars and deer”. On the other hand, there are three entire chapters in the Mahabharata against the eating of meat. Example; Bhisma says “eating meat enslaves the mind”. In Puranic, we see similar conflicting statements which at one point rejected meat eating but on the other encouraged it. It is Bhagavata Purana which completely distanced itself from the sacrifice of the animal and probably contributed to the adoption of Vegetarianism. In other words the rise of Vaishnavism did play a major role as well and so did other Bhakti sects.
Why did Brahminical Vegetarianism originate?
Supremacy Factor:
During the post Vedic age as discussed the Brahmins started losing their influence in the social milieu. According to Brian K Smith in his essay ” Eaters, Food and Social Hierarchy in Ancient India” published in the Journal of American Academy of Religion, Vol 58,pp.178, the composers of Veda ie; Brahmins managed to present a rationale “for their own social superiority”. They rationalize their superiority by their sacrificial skills, it was only they who were endowed with the function of the execution of sacrifices back then. They stood apart from all others on the basis of sacrificial privileges. In this way, Brahmins found their importance in the society. Their Supremacy was challenged by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism which renounced sacrifices. This event might have had a drastic effect on the diet of the Brahmins, and could have led to the changes in the dietary pattern leading them to adopt vegetarianism in order to retain their influence on hoi polloi. Thus, the authors of the Veda tried to place themselves on the top of the social Hierarchy, by changing their dietary habits. Again, this is a mere surmise. But there is a strong possibility that the Supremacy factor did nudge them in adoption of Vegetarianism to suit their interest in order to remain influential.
‘Ahimsa‘ And ‘Purity‘ Factor :
According to Francis Zimmerman,’ non violence'(ahimsa) is fundamentally linked with vegetarianism. Francis Zimmerman in his “The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats”(1987) quotes that;
“The Prohibition Of flesh, which became increasingly strict in Brahminic society, was one way to break the chain of this alimentary violence and affirm that it is not really necessary to killing in order to eat”.
Hence, Vegetarianism didn’t mean only a new dietary custom rather it was more associated with the values. Manu says “No meat could be obtained without violence( himsa). In order to refrain oneself from eating flesh it was essential to follow the path of non violence. Vegetarianism became the path to liberate oneself from the bonds of natural violence. Apparently, this was only possible after the realization of the ideal of ” ahimsa”. We also see the emergence of Sattvic, Tamasic and Rajasic food which was enshrined in the Ayurveda. Essentially, vegetarianism and non violence became the symbol of ‘purity’. Louis Dumont says that Brahmins gave up sacrificial skills and devised a new term ‘purity’ to seek domination in the social hierarchy. Pure and impure became the determinants of society, on which karmic structure was fixed. The entire caste system was wrapped in the fabric pure and impure which also depended on food and social contact. For example: Even among the Brahmins those who killed the sacrificial animal were regarded lower status than the presiding priest. Hence, the concept of purity and ahimsa also pointed largely toward the caste distinction that prevailed during those times. This whole idea of adoption of vegetarianism is supposedly based on such factors. Thus, we do have ample logical reasons to believe that the Brahmins did adopt vegetarianism. In this process of adoption, the role played by the Sramanas seems influential since they were the first renouncers. Later on, this got subsumed in Hinduism and Brahminism became coterminous with vegetarianism. This is again not true. In most parts, Brahmins still eat non vegetarian foods. In addition to these, climate and cultivation of crops did play an important role in shifting the focus from dependence on animals for food and encouraging sedentary life, giving rise to new ideas, and questioning authority, abolishing rigid norms and adopting different lifestyle and food preferences.
Sources:
~Indian Food (KT Acharya)
~Strategies of Vedic Subversion (Edwin Bryant)
~Food in the Vedic Tradition ( DS Guha)
~Eaters, Food and Social Hierarchy in Ancient India (Brian K Smith)
Suggested Readings:
~Indian Food and Cuisine- a historical survey ( Rekha Pande)
~The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats ( F. Zimmerman)
~Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications ( Louis Dumont)
~History of Dharmashastra (PV Kane)
~Rigveda Samhita translation by Ralph T.H Griffith and Jamieson
~Animals and Humans in Early Buddhism ( James McDermott)